I used cheap USB 2 SATA adapter before and it worked. ROS can also be installed and booted from USB flash drive.
If you can’t boot it, it might be BIOS setting (UEFI vs. legacy, HDD controller being IDE/SATA/AHCI/…), or ROS not having driver for the disk controller or some required chipset device.
Sadly ROS doesn’t show anything during booting, so you don’t know what’s really going on and where the problem is. Maybe try a different PC or a virtual machine (I used VMWare for testing before, it can use connected HDD directly).